Midterm+Part+A

In 2/3 sentences define or id each item and describe its importance or relation to classroom practice. -type your term in **bold** and then concisely define and describe application. If you are not the first person to tackle the term, please add and/or delete info. Most important here is the importance/relation part, so many different examples will help everyone remember and better explain the term.

1. **scaffolding**-Structures or clues used to aid a student in completing tasks that he or she may not be able to complete without help. This can allow students to complete tasks that are more difficult, without telling or showing the student the correct procedure. The use of scaffolding leads to real learning. (Those Who Can Teach p167-168) (//Hunter Meys//)

Also, providing assistance--some structure, clues, help with remembering certain steps or procedures, or encouragement to try--when a learner is on the verge of solving a problem but can't complete it independently (//Those Who Can, Teach// 503). (Emily Pfannenstiel)

2. **learning community or community of learners**- The term learning community is discussed by Martin Haberman in //Can Star Teachers Create Learning Communities?// (Kaleidoscope #5) and is defined as members (students and teachers) sharing a common vision that learning is the primary purpose for their association and the ultimate value to preserve in their workplace and that learning outcomes are the primary criteria for evaluating the success of their work. The application of a learning community in a classroom has the following attributes: modeling, continual sharing of ideas, collaboration, egalitarianism, high productivity, community, and practical application. //Kristen Dimitriades//

//In a school learning environment, proffesional development and learning are the goals. This in school learning environment relies on an effective and passionate instructer to create positive learning environment for the students. (Hunter Meys)//

3. **pre-existing or prior knowledge-** The term used by Plato implies that prior knowledge has is in us from our past life. He says, "All nature is akin, and the should has learned everything, so that when a man has recalled a single piece of knowledge- learned it, in ordinary language- there is no reason why he should find out all the rest" (pg.130). Bransford implies that this knowledge comes from prior classroom experience with certain skills that the children have. He says, "They come to formal education with a range of prior knowledge, skills, beliefs, and concepts that significantly influence what they notice about the environment and how they organize and interpret it" (pg. 10). //(Jenna Tamburello)//

I don't think this is correct. I don't believe Plato himself used the term, "pre-existing," or "prior" knowledge in the dialogues of the Meno. Plato is more typically associated with "innate knowledge," although I'm not sure if that term is verbatim from the except of the Meno. Bransford is the source that actually refers to "pre-existing knowledge."

4. **transfer (of learning)-** The term discussed by Bransford transfer refers to the ability to apply concepts or previous knowledge to new situations. This application is important because the concepts will be better (and more widely) understood, more useful and exciting, as they can be used to solve various real world problems. //(Julia Richmond//

Bransford describes the factors that influence people's ability to transfer knowledge. They are (and I quote):
 * "People must achieve an initial threshold of learning that is sufficient to support transfer".
 * "Practice and getting familiar with subject matter takes time, but most important is how people use their time while learning".
 * "Learning with understanding is more likely to promote transfer than simply memorizing information"
 * to be honest... there are a bunch of bullet points that you can read here. is it ok if I don't write them all? they are on page 236. //(Jenna Tamburello)//

5. **inert knowledge (Perkins)**- Inert knowledge is separated into two categories: knowledge that is actually inert, and knowledge that is incorrectly perceived as inert: //For more information, see pp. 231-235 of Kaleidoscope. (Lauren Lutz)//
 * knowledge that is not required for real life circumstances, and cannot be used "actively". (knowledge that is not applicable to a career setting or to daily chores, etc.)
 * example: terms and concepts that are memorized for a quiz, but have no greater purpose.
 * applicable knowledge that students incorrectly deem to be inert.
 * Students erroneously believe that "active" knowledge is actually "inert" knowledge when they fail to metacognitively make connections between to subject areas.
 * example: a student might understand a mathematical strategy, but will not be able to comprehend its purpose in scientific research. In failing to recognize the larger purpose for knowledge earned in school, a student cannot actively utilize it. Thus, it is deemed as inert.
 * In order to combat the issue of useful knowledge being deemed inert, constructivist teachers attempt to create situations for the learners to USE the concepts, rather than just instructing students to memorize it.

Knowledge that is only applied when directly called upon or prompted. This type of knowledge will not be active unless utilized, expanded, and most of all applied to the world through active problem-solving. (//Julia Richmond)//

6. **zone of proximal development (Vyogtsky)-** //Information taken from Kaleidoscope glossary and Bransford packet (p. 203). (Lauren Lutz)// -Vygotsky defines "zone of proximal development" as the students optimal level of learning (taken out of Kaleidoscope). Students and teachers may base their ways of learning on one's "zone of proximal" development because this is where their highest achievement can occur. To reach one's zone of proximal development teachers have to identify each students learning ability. (//jillian kirchner)//
 * a concept created by child developmental psychologist, Vygotsky.
 * The term refers to a range of tasks that a child would not usually be able to accomplish, but can complete when a more skilled partner (or technological resource, according to p. 203 of the Bransford reading packet) aids and overlooks their progress. (The act of aiding and overlooking another is referred to as **scaffolding**, see above). The most significant learning occurs in this zone, as students are challenged to perform to their optimum ability.


 * 7. retrieval-** Can be defined as the cognitive operation of accessing information in memory (**//Jillian Kirchner)//**
 * //any ideas of where/who is this term from?//** I believe this is in reference to Plato’s Meno. Plato explains that everyone already contains knowledge inside of them, as a result of his or her past life. And, that an individual learns when he or she is able to retrieve this knowledge.

I don't think the term is from Plato. In Meno, Plato uses the term "recall," or "recollection," which I don't think is synonymous with "retrieval." "Retrieval," (from what I remember of PS241 [if anyone is taking it this semester, I'm referring to what I think is included in Berk's Child Development text]) is the method of pulling information from one's long-term memory into direct use.

//For more information see pp. 218 - 224 in Kaleidoscope - Kendra Smallwood.// Also it mostly an issue with motivation rather than a physical or mental handicap (Kaleidoscope p.218). Clifford also states that this "educational suicide" is propelled by the idea of "absolute success" which is "the means and the end of education"( Kaleidoscope p.219). ~ Jess Couture
 * 8. Educational Suicide (Clifford) -** The term educational suicide is one that Margaret Clifford refers to express a more severe form of school "dropout". It refers to more of an "abandonment of school by children and adolescents" (Kaleidoscope 39) and is referenced by high dropout rates and a severe abandonment in the attempt of learning. Clifford also talks about how it is not just the stereotypical students that make up this category, but also the talented and gifted student that easily give up on their process of active learning.

When explaining educational suicide, Clifford also says that it is a sense of apathy, that can be manifested in other ways than just abandonment of school. Students who attend classes, but are utterly disengaged in the learning process, can also be said to be experiencing education suicide. (p. 218) //--Lauren Lutz//

Academic Engaged Time is also defined in the back of TWCT as the time a student spends on academically relevant activities or materials **while experiencing a high rate of success**. The difference in time was that efficient teachers get 90 hours more of this time a year out of students than average teachers and 180 hours more than inefficient teachers. The main conclusion of researching this was that a primary goal of teachers should be to keep students on task as often as possible. //Kristen Dimitriades// Academic engaged time in reading and mathematics is strongly related to a student's achievement in those subjects. More time engaged in learning a subject results in greater achievement. Teachers use different approaches to keep the students engaged for so much of the classroom time, such as behavior modification, socioemotional climate, group process, and authority. //TWCT pp. 171-172 (Alicia Mello)//
 * 9. Academic Engaged Time (TWCT)** - This term is introduced in Chapter 6 under the subchapter //What Teaching Skills Are Required of an Effective Teacher?// (pp. 170 - 172). The term refers to the amount of time that students spend being actively engaged in educational or academic materials. The concept is used in research, showing that efficient and effective teachers engage their students effective longer than "average" teachers. //Kendra Smallwood//
 * 10. Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TWCT Ch. 6)**
 * defined in the glossary as teacher's knowledge that bridges content knowledge and pedagogy with an understanding of how particular topics can best be presented for instruction given the diverse interests and abilities of learners
 * A skilled teacher makes powerful analogies, illustrations, examples, explanations, and demonstrations to represent and transform the subject so that student can better understand it.
 * This type of knowledge along with knowledge of discipline content and curriculum content are essential for effective teachers. //TWCT p. 165 **(**Alicia Mello)//

Pedagogical Content Knowledge represents the "blending of content and pedagogy into an understanding of how particular topics, problems, or issues are organized, represented, and adapted to the diverse interests and abilities of learners, and presented for instruction" (//Those Who Can, Teach// p. 165). (Emily Pfannenstiel)